question 1

• a) In optics, analysis involved analyzing white light by decomposing it into its component spectral colors and synthesis recombining those colors to create white light. (p.465) In Chymistry, analysis refers to the dissolution of a compound into its ingredients and synthesis to the recombination of the ingredients back into the original compound. (p.466)
• b) Boyle called potassium carbonate "fixed niter" (a base) and nitric acid "spirit of niter" (an acid). (p.467)
• c) While mechanical processes are only mechanical transpositions of parts (mixing, melting,...), vegetal processes are driven by "tiny" seeds inside the matter, which make the process goal-directed (towards growth of the matter) and make small transpositions within the matter. (p.472, 475) Thus, Newton believed that the scale of the transposition is the distinguishing factor: mechanical processes transpose parts, while vegetal processes change the matter. Newton believed that if analysis of the compound or synthesis of the ingredients is possible, the substance was produced by a mechanical process. (p.474)
• d) Newton read Boyle's work Origin of Forms and Qualities and possibly also Certain Physiological Essays. (p.466, 467)

question 2

• a) Newton admired Mede's work, because of the scientific approach to the interpretation of the Revelation. (p.494) He liked Mede's clarity, simplicity and generality of the "synchronising" of the prophecy (p.495.), the idea that different visions and symbols in Revelation described the same events and historical periods from different perspectives.
• b) Newton took his interpretation from the method of viewing the language in the Bible as figurative, e.g. that natural disasters signify important social and political events. (p.498) He believed that it was the language used by learned people from India, Egypt and Persia at the time when the texts were written. (p.497)
• c) Newton believed that the Temple structure reflected phases of Church history, and could be linked to prophecies from the Revelation. Therefore, the measurements were important for the future of the Church. (p.497)
• d) The main source of corruption, Newton found, is Athanasius. (p.492) Athanasius I of Alexandria, who lived from ~300-373^[1], was the Patriarch of Alexandria and the leading person at the (first) Council of Nicaea. The council declared Arianism - the doctrine that Jesus is a creation of God - a heresy and introduced doctrines like the Trinity, monasticism and saint-worship. Newton strongly opposed these decisions and ideas and saw Athanasius as the start of the theological corruption. (p.491, p.493)
• e) Newton used standard scholarly techniques to argue against Athanasius common image (p.492) His arguments were:
  1. Newton claimed that Athanasius had rewritten the history and that many of his accounts could not be verified by indepndent sources. (p.492)
  2. He quoted Athanasius's enemies (christian and pagan writers from the 4th century) which portrayed him negatively and made accusations against him such as murder, lying, and immorality. (p.493)

question 3

• a) There are two similarities between God and men, namely human self-motion (the capacity to freely move) which Newton considered a "delineation" of the creative power of God. (p.489) Secondly, men were created in the Image of God, so there was a similarity between the body and mind of men and that of God. (p.490)
• b) God should be worshipped because he had infinite power and dominion. (p.490, 519)
• c) Newton believed that the only way to deal with deceptions was to rely on empirical information, intellectual work and hard labor, and not on untrustworthy spiritual techniques and physical exercises. (p.494, 495, 520)
• d) Gnosticism was defined by Newton differently, as a form of "religious corruption". (pp. 513-516) Newton described God as an infinitely benevolent, intelligent and powerful creator of the universe (p.519) - thus his creation could impossibly be evil. Also, in Genesis^[2], which was (reportedly) written by Moses, and which Newton viewed as true and inspired immediately by God (p.498, 514), it was mentioned that the creation was "very good", not evil. Newton saw the Gnostic movement therefore as a perversion of the "true" religion that introduced heresy and contradicted the truth of the creation.

(quite incomplete) summary

Newton was quite religious, and saw himself because of his "special talent", intelligence, as an Elect by God. He also believed in a need for free and independent study of religious topics - or religious toleration - which was quite an extreme view for his time.

Newton had many clergymen as relatives, and at the (religious) school he attended he learned Latin and Greek - important languages for a scientist, which allowed him to read Greek texts and have first opinions about theology.

Some of his first - not influenced - opinions was the dislike of idolatry and the concept of the holy trinity. He also disliked the decisions of the Great Apostasy and the Council of Nicaea (relic-, image-, saint-worship, adoration of the Virgin Mary, the Holy Trinity), and held the view - similar to Arianism - that the whole Christ, has suffered and perished, but has been incarnated as the logos to be worshipped because of his deeds.

Regarding prophecy, he had a strong belief in the Revelation, and also "scientifically" rewrote many of the visions, with the idea that they represented political events and historical periods. He copied that idea mostly from Joseph Mede, but made much more effort, using many sources, to interprete the propehcy.

Although Newton had a scientific approach to religion, he clearly divided between the Bible and the natural philosophy in Principia Mathematica. Newton had 3 projects in the 1680s and 1690s:

1. re-analysis, harmonization of various histories of the pre-Christian world
2. rereading the works of classical historians, to find true (albeit symbolically written) philosophy in their writing
3. learning about the "original, true religion" or "vestal religion" spread by Noah after the flood

He thought that one could only come to knowledge of God through the investigation of nature, and everyone (scientists) who do that are engaged in an intrinsically religious pursuit. He found that this "vestal" religion has been taught also by Mose to the Egyptians (who had some mysterious idolatry of religion) and by Christ (thought his teachings have been perverted by the Roman Catholics into idolatry).

Newton believed that the Principia was recovering ancient actual knowledge.

Newton knew the Bible extremely good, and made greate effort to find the "original" wording of the text.

In the last decade of his life, Newton's focus shifted from the "vestal religion" to the history and original structure of the Church. He believed that it should not have a specific structure but only a system for encouraging and discouraging all values of the true religion. The true religion should be simple, he believed, and not debate over philosophical opinions and questions that are "disputable", such as the state of Christ. Thus, (finally) Newton's commitment to religious toleration can be seen.

Still, Newton tried to grasp the pristine apostolic Christianity, and tried to work out when gnostics had been incorporated into the "true" faith.

But despite all that, Newton was still a devout Christian, because he insisted that Christianity is a pactical and useful religion, and that god was worthy of being worshipped because of his infinite power and dominion.

words - known and unknown

Arianism - Holy Trinity (ideas), Great Council of Nicaea (events), the Patriarch Athanasius I (persons), Revelation (texts)

-> words I understand, even if only surficial

inferences (p.490), anti-homoousian (p492), patristic (p.494), Tabernacle (p.496), gentiles (p.497), herlemeutical (p.498), intrinsically (p.503), Platonism (p.503), glosses (p.505), hermeneutics (p.505), exegesis (p.505), Johaninne comma (p.506), cabbalism (p.514), emanationism (p.514)

-> words I don't understand

I didn't understand the whole passage about the Johaninne comma -

comments && question 4

I find it interesting that so many people where interested in Prophecy of the Apocalypse. The influence of that interest can be seen in many books from that time, even non-philosophical ones - like e.g. Gulliver's travels or Leviathan. (I haven't read that much from the 17. century)

I don't only think that Newton's religious conceptions shaped the "Principia", but I believe that they even made the work possible in the first place. The idea that the men (and the world in general) are similar to God (p.489), and that by analysis of the universe men could make some inferences and therefore could know god to an extent (p.490) was likely to be the driving motivation for Newton, an extremely religious man. Additionally, the Geometric approach in the work - an approach that is tangible and visible in the world around us - instead of an abstract, analytical approach was probably as much the influence of the time he lived in as it is of the motivation to use something that is part of the world - and therefore connected to God.

draft 2:
I don't only think that Newton's religious conceptions shaped the "Principia", but I believe that they even made it possible in the first place. His belief that both men and the whole creation are similar to God (p.489), and that by analysis of the universe, humans could come to know god to some measure (p.490) was probably the driving force behind his science. Additionally, the geometric - instead of the abstract, analytical - approach in his work, rooted in the observable world was probably as much the influence of the time he lived in as it is of the motivation to use something tangible, tied to God's creation. Moreover, Newton's belief in universal laws was probably not purely empirical; it reflected a belief in an ordered, understandable world governed by a rational God.